Голова и шея:
нижний край нижней челюсти → сосцевидный отросток → верхняя выйная линия → наружный затылочный бугор
Мозговой и лицевой отделы головы:
надглазничный край → скуловая кость → скуловая дуга → наружный слуховой проход
Различают свод черепа, fornix cranii, и основание, basis cranii.
Граница:
носолобный шов → надглазничный край → верхний край скуловой дуги → основание сосцевидного отростка → верхняя выйная линия → наружный затылочный выступ
Свод черепа (Fornix cranii) разделяется на области
Основание черепа (Basis cranii) разделено на ямки:
Граница между передней и средней ямками — задние края малых крыльев клиновидной кости, между средней и задней — верхняя грань пирамид височных костей.
Лобная, затылочная и теменные области схожи по строению, поэтому рассматриваются как единая область.
Ориентиры: надглазничный край, затылочный бугор, козелок уха, наружный слуховой проход
Границы:
Слои:
Мнемоника: «Кожа-Клетка-Шлем-Клетка-Кость»
Сосуды и нервы:
Лимфатические узлы:
Особенности анатомической структуры: различные формы гематом при ушибах
Ориентиры: скуловая дуга, наружный край глазницы, наружный слуховой проход
Границы:
Слои:
Мнемоника: «Кожа-Клетка-Мышца-Клетка-Кость»
Сосуды и нервы:
Лимфатические узлы:
Особенности анатомической структуры:
Расположена на границе мозгового и лицевого отделов головы, входит в состав наружного уха.
Наружное ухо, auris externа
-ушная раковина, auricula (эластический хрящ, покрытый кожей)
-наружный слуховой проход, meatus acusticus externus (S-образный изгиб)
Наружный слуховой проход отделяется от среднего уха барабанной перепонкой, membrana tympani
Кровоснабжение:
внутреннее ухо - внутренняя слуховая артерия - ветвь базилярной артерии
Иннервация:
Лимфоотток:
Ориентиры: располагается позади ушной раковины
Границы: соответствуют контурам сосцевидного отростка
Слои:
Трепанационный треугольник Шипо
(назначение - оперативный доступ при мастоидитах и хроническом воспалении среднего уха)
Границы:
Треугольник Шипо граничит:
Сосуды и нервы:
Лимфатические узлы:
Разделяется на три ямки: переднюю, среднюю (головной мозг) и заднюю (мозжечок)
Границы между ямками:
Передняя черепная ямка (fossa cranii anterior) → лобные доли полушарий головного мозга
Образована:
Структуры:
Отверстия:
Средняя черепная ямка (fossa cranii media)
Образована
Структуры:
Отверстия:
Задняя черепная ямка (fossa cranii posterior)
Образована:
Отверстия:
Твердая оболочка (dura mater cranialis)
Связана с костями черепа, продолжается в канал спинного мозга.
Отростки:
Средняя менингеальная артерия (a. meningea media): основной источник кровоснабжения твердой оболочки, повреждается при переломах височной кости.
Паутинная оболочка (arachnoidea mater cranialis)
Покрывает борозды мозга, формируя субдуральное пространство, где могут образовываться гематомы.
Мягкая оболочка (pia mater cranialis)
Прилегает к мозгу, проникает в его борозды, образуя сосудистые сплетения и производя ликвор.
Ликвор
Содержится в подпаутинном (субарахноидальном) пространстве.
Цистерны:
Артерии
Внутренние сонные артерии (а. carotis interna)
Ветви:
Позвоночные артерии (а. vertebralis)
Мнемоника: "Позвоночник через Отверстие — Базилярная артерия стала Звездой!"
Виллизиев круг (сirculus arteriosus cerebri)
Составные части круга:
Вены
Поверхностные и глубокие вены мозга
Мнемоника: "Вена Галена, ведет к Прямому Синусу!"
Синусы твердой мозговой оболочки
Пещеристый синус (sinus cavernosus)
-а. carotis interna
-нервы: глазодвигательный (n. oculomotorius), блоковый (n. trochlearis), глазной нерв (n. ophthalmicus), отводящий нерв (n. abducens)
Мнемоника: 2-3-4
Важность пещеристого синуса в распространении воспалительных процессов (менингит)
Эмиссарные вены:
Декомпрессивная трепанация по Кушингу:
Декомпрессивная (декомпрессионная, резекционная) трепанация - паллиативная операция, которая чаще всего выполняется при неоперабельных опухолях головного мозга с целью устранения или уменьшения болевого симптома путем снижения внутричерепного давления.
Костно-пластическая трепанация
Способы костно-пластической трепанации:
- однолоскутная по Вагнеру-Вольфу;
- двухлоскутная по Оливекрону.
Этапы двухлоскутной костно-пластической трепанации:
• формирование кожно-апоневратического лоскута;
• обработка надкостницы;
• сверление фрезевых отверстий:
• перепиливание костных перемычек между ними;
• откидывание костно-надкостничного лоскута с сохранением или без сохранения питающей ножки; • рассечение твердой мозговой оболочки;
• манипуляции на мозге;
• ушивание твердой мозговой оболочки;
• закрытие дефекта черепа.
Границы мозгового отдела головы:
Строение мозгового отдела:
Височная область:
Область ушной раковины:
Область сосцевидного отростка:
Внутреннее основание черепа:
Оболочки головного мозга:
Кровоснабжение головного мозга:
Операции:
Декомпрессивная трепанация по Кушингу - паллиативная операция, для снятия болевого синдрома и уменьшения внутричерепного давления.
Костно-пластическая трепанация - для восстановления дефектов черепа, например, после травм или предыдущих операций.
Способы:
Head and neck:
lower border of the mandible → mastoid process → superior nuchal line → external occipital protuberance
• Mnemonic: "Low-Ear-Occiput"
Cranial and facial parts of the head:
supraorbital margin → zygomatic bone → zygomatic arch → external auditory meatus
• Mnemonic: "Eye-Zygoma-Ear"
The skull is divided into the calvaria (fornix cranii) and the base (basis cranii).
Boundary:
naso-frontal suture → supraorbital margin → superior border of the zygomatic arch → base of the mastoid process → superior nuchal line → external occipital protuberance
The calvaria (Fornix cranii) is divided into regions:
• Unpaired: frontal, occipital
• Paired: parietal, temporal, auricles, mastoid processes
The base of the skull (Basis cranii) is divided into fossae:
• Anterior and middle cranial fossae for the cerebrum
• Posterior cranial fossa for the cerebellum
The boundary between the anterior and middle fossae is marked by the posterior edges of the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone, and between the middle and posterior fossae—by the upper edge of the temporal bone pyramids.
The frontal, occipital, and parietal regions are similar in structure and are therefore considered as a single region.
Landmarks: supraorbital margin, occipital tubercle, tragus of the ear, external auditory meatus
Boundaries:
• Anterior: supraorbital margin
• Posterior: external occipital tubercle and superior nuchal line, running horizontally from the tubercle
• Lateral: the initial part of the temporalis muscle, corresponding to the upper temporal line on the skull
Layers:
• Skin (with hair)
• Subcutaneous tissue (with vessels and nerves)
• Tendinous helmet (occipitofrontalis muscle)
• Subaponeurotic tissue
• Periosteum
• Skull bones (occipital, parietal, frontal) (contain diploe)
• Epidural space
• Dura mater – forms venous sinuses
• Subdural space
• Arachnoid mater – avascular, forms Pacchionian granulations
• Subarachnoid space – filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Pia mater – covers the brain tissue, extends into the gyri
• Brain substance (gray and white matter)
Mnemonic: "Skin-Tissue-Helmet-Tissue-Bone"
Vessels and nerves:
• Supraorbital (a., v. et n. supraorbitales) → project to the supraorbital margin at the boundary of its middle and inner third; the nerve is located medially to the vessels
• Supratrochlear (a., v. et n. supratrochleares) → project at the angle between the upper and inner edges of the orbit
• Superficial temporal artery (a. temporalis superficialis) → projects vertically anterior to the tragus
• Occipital artery (a. occipitalis) and greater occipital nerve (n. occipitalis major) → project to the midpoint between the posterior edge of the mastoid process and external occipital tubercle
Lymph nodes:
• Parotid (lymph drainage from the frontal region)
• Mastoid (lymph drainage from the parietal region)
• Occipital (lymph drainage from the parietal and occipital regions)
Anatomical features: Various forms of hematomas in contusions
• Subcutaneous hematomas protrude as a "bump" due to fibrous septa between the skin and the tendinous helmet in the subcutaneous tissue
• Subaponeurotic hematomas are flat, diffuse, without sharp boundaries
• Subperiosteal hematomas have sharply defined edges according to the attachment of the periosteum along the bone sutures
Landmarks: zygomatic arch, external margin of the orbit, external auditory meatus
Boundaries:
• Anterior: zygomatic process of the frontal bone, frontal process of the zygomatic bone
• Superior: contour of the superior border of the temporal bone
• Lateral/inferior: zygomatic arch
Layers:
• Thin skin (with hair)
• Subcutaneous tissue (with vessels and nerves)
• Temporal fascia (with interfascial tissue, a. temporalis media) - superficial and deep laminae
• Subfascial tissue
• Temporalis muscle
• Temporal process of the cheek fat body (anteriorly between the anterior border of the temporalis muscle and the outer wall of the orbit)
• Subtemporal loose connective tissue under the muscle (anterior and posterior deep temporal vessels and nerves)
• Periosteum
• Temporal bone (thin squama, diploe is almost absent → easily prone to fractures)
• Epidural space
• Dura mater – forms venous sinuses
• Subdural space
• Arachnoid mater – avascular, forms Pacchionian granulations
• Subarachnoid space – filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Pia mater – covers the brain tissue, extends into the gyri
• Brain substance (gray and white matter)
Mnemonic: "Skin-Tissue-Muscle-Tissue-Bone"
Vessels and nerves:
• Superficial temporal artery (a. temporalis superficialis) and auriculotemporal nerve (n. auriculotemporalis, from the II branch of the V cranial nerve) → projects vertically anterior to the tragus (site of palpation and artery compression)
• Middle temporal artery (a. temporalis media) → branch of the temporal artery, projects above the zygomatic arch
• Branches of the facial nerve: r. frontalis (to the frontal belly of the occipitofrontalis muscle), r. zygomaticus (to the orbicularis oculi muscle) → projects above the anterior third of the zygomatic arch
• n. auriculotemporalis and n. zygomaticotemporalis (from the III branch of the V cranial nerve) → provide sensory innervation to the skin of the anterior part of the temporal region
Lymph nodes:
• Deep parotid (within the parotid gland)
Anatomical features:
• Subcutaneous hematomas spread horizontally due to the loose subcutaneous tissue
• Fractures of the temporal bone are associated with intracranial hemorrhage due to the proximity of the a. meningea media to its inner surface (→ epidural and subdural hematomas)
Located at the boundary between the cranial and facial parts of the head, it is part of the outer ear.
External ear (auris externa)
• Helix (zavitochka)
• Antihelix (protivozavitok)
• Tragus (kozelok)
• Antitragus (protivokozelok)
• Earlobe (ushnaya mochka)
• Cartilaginous part – 1/3
• Bony part – 2/3
The external auditory canal is separated from the middle ear by the eardrum (membrana tympani).
Landmarks: located behind the auricle
Boundaries: correspond to the contours of the mastoid process
• Anterior: auricle
• Superior: a line that extends backward from the zygomatic process of the temporal bone
Layers:
• Thin skin
• Subcutaneous tissue (with vessels and nerves)
• Own fascia (continuation of the fascia of the sternocleidomastoid muscle)
• Connective tissue (in the upper-anterior part)
• Muscles: m. sternocleidomastoideus, posterior belly of m. digastricus, m. splenius (in other parts)
• Periosteum – fused with the bone, except for the upper-anterior part
• Bone – contains air cells
Shipo trepanation triangle
(Purpose: operative access in cases of mastoiditis and chronic middle ear inflammation)
Boundaries:
• Anterior: posterior edge of the external auditory canal and spina suprameatica
• Superior: a line continuing the upper edge of the zygomatic arch
• Posterior: crest of the mastoid process (crista mastoidea), mastoid foramen (foramen mastoideum), through which the mastoid emissary vein passes into the cranial cavity
The Shipo triangle borders:
• Superiorly: the middle cranial fossa
• Posteriorly: the sigmoid sinus
• Anteriorly: the facial nerve canal
Vessels and nerves:
• Posterior auricular artery and vein (a. et v. auriculares posteriores)
• Posterior branch of the greater auricular nerve (n. auricularis magnus) – sensory branch from the cervical plexus
• Posterior auricular nerve (n. auricularis posterior) – branch of the facial nerve
• Mastoid emissary vein → sigmoid sinus of the dura mater
Lymph nodes:
• Mastoid lymph nodes (nodi mastoidea) – lymph drainage from the frontal-parietal-occipital region, from the posterior surface of the auricle, the external auditory canal, and the eardrum
Divided into three fossae: the anterior, middle (for the brain), and posterior (for the cerebellum).
Boundaries between the fossae:
• Anterior and middle – posterior edges of the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone
• Middle and posterior – upper border of the pyramids of the temporal bones
Anterior cranial fossa (fossa cranii anterior)
Houses the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres
Formed by:
• Orbital parts of the frontal bone
• Cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone
• Lesser wings of the sphenoid bone
• Part of the body of the sphenoid bone
Structures:
• Crista galli (peripheral part of the ethmoid bone)
• A. ethmoidalis anterior (branch of the ophthalmic artery)
Foramen:
• Lamina cribrosa → passes the olfactory nerves (n. olfactorius)
Middle cranial fossa (fossa cranii media)
Formed by:
• Central part → the superior surface of the body of the sphenoid bone (region of the sella turcica)
• Lateral parts → greater wings of the sphenoid bone and the pyramids of the temporal bones
Structures:
• Pituitary gland in the central part
• Chiasma opticum (optic nerve crossing)
• Sinus cavernosus (cavernous sinuses)
Foramen:
• Canalis opticus → optic nerve (n. opticus) and ophthalmic artery (a. ophthalmica)
• Fissura orbitalis superior → oculomotor nerve (n. oculomotorius), trochlear nerve (n. trochlearis), ophthalmic nerve (n. ophthalmicus), abducens nerve (n. abducens), ophthalmic vein (v. ophthalmica)
• Foramen rotundum → maxillary nerve (n. maxillaris)
• Foramen ovale → mandibular nerve (n. mandibularis)
• Foramen spinosum → middle meningeal artery (a. meningea media)
• Foramen lacerum → internal opening of the carotid canal for the internal carotid artery (a. carotis interna)
• Porus acusticus internus → facial nerve (n. facialis), intermediate nerve (n. intermedius), vestibulocochlear nerve (n. vestibulocochlearis)
Posterior cranial fossa (fossa cranii posterior)
Formed by:
• Occipital bone
• Part of the body of the sphenoid bone
• Posterior surfaces of the pyramids of the temporal bones
Foramen:
• Foramen occipitale magnum → medulla oblongata and vertebral arteries (aa. vertebrales)
• Foramen jugulare → glossopharyngeal nerve (n. glossopharyngeus), vagus nerve (n. vagus), accessory nerve (n. accessorius), internal jugular vein (v. jugularis interna)
• Canalis n. hypoglossi → hypoglossal nerve (n. hypoglossus)
Dura Mater (cranial dura mater)
It is attached to the bones of the skull and continues into the spinal cord canal.
Extensions:
• Falx cerebri → separates the hemispheres of the brain
• Falx cerebelli → separates the hemispheres of the cerebellum
• Tentorium cerebelli → separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum
Middle meningeal artery (a. meningea media) is the primary blood supply to the dura mater and is damaged in fractures of the temporal bone.
Arachnoid Mater (cranial arachnoidea)
It covers the brain's sulci, forming the subdural space, where hematomas can form.
Pia Mater (cranial pia mater)
It adheres to the brain, penetrating into its sulci, forming vascular plexuses and producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
It is contained in the subarachnoid space.
Cisterns:
• Cisterna cerebellomedullaris posterior — a large cistern between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata
• Cisterna chiasmatica — a cistern at the crossing of the optic nerves
Arteries
Internal Carotid Arteries (a. carotis interna)
• Pass through the parapharyngeal space and enter the external aperture of the carotid canal
• In the cranial cavity, the artery ascends along the sulcus caroticus of the sphenoid bone
Branches:
• a. ophthalmica → passes through the optic canal into the orbit
• a. communicans posterior → anastomoses with the posterior cerebral artery (a. cerebri posterior), which branches from the basilar artery
• a. cerebri anterior et media → anterior and middle cerebral arteries (the anterior cerebral artery connects with the opposite side via the anterior communicating artery)
• a. cerebri media (Middle Cerebral Artery, Sylvian artery) → supplies the lateral surfaces of the frontal, parietal, and partially the occipital lobes
Vertebral Arteries (a. vertebralis)
• Paired arteries pass through the foramina in the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae and enter the cranial cavity via the foramen magnum
• Form the a. basilaris at the base of the skull
• The a. basilaris gives off two a. cerebri posteriores, which connect to the middle cerebral artery via the posterior communicating artery (a. communicans posterior)
Mnemonic: "Vertebrae through the Hole — Basilar artery became the Star!"
Circle of Willis (Circulus arteriosus cerebri)
• A crucial anastomotic network that ensures brain blood supply if one of the main arteries' blood flow is interrupted.
Components of the circle:
• a. communicans anterior → connects the anterior cerebral arteries
• a. communicans posterior → connects the internal carotid arteries with the posterior cerebral arteries
Veins
Superficial and Deep Veins of the Brain
• Superficial veins are located on the surface of the gyri, while deep veins are situated deeper within the brain
• Deep veins merge to form v. cerebri magna (vein of Galen) → sinus rectus
Mnemonic: "The Galen vein leads to the Straight Sinus!"
Sinuses of the Dura Mater
• The sinuses collect venous blood and direct it to the internal jugular vein
• sinus sagittalis superior → located at the upper edge of the falx cerebri, connects with the veins of the nasal cavity and emissary veins
• sinus rectus → located at the junction of the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli, receives blood from the v. cerebri magna
• sinus occipitalis → runs along the base of the falx cerebelli and drains into the sinus confluence, from where blood flows into the sinus transversus
• sinus transversus → runs along the base of the tentorium cerebelli and turns into the sinus sigmoideus
• sinus sigmoideus → receives blood from the transverse sinus and directs it to the superior bulb of the internal jugular vein
Cavernous Sinus (sinus cavernosus)
• Located on the sides of the sella turcica, it receives blood from the small sinuses of the anterior cranial fossa and veins of the orbit
• The following pass through the cavernous sinus:
a. carotis interna
Nerves: oculomotor (n. oculomotorius), trochlear (n. trochlearis), ophthalmic (n. ophthalmicus), abducens (n. abducens)
Mnemonic: "2-3-4"
Importance of the Cavernous Sinus in the Spread of Inflammatory Processes (Meningitis)
Emissary Veins:
• Connect venous sinuses with the superficial veins of the skull vault (help compensate for venous outflow during increased intracranial pressure)
Decompressive Trepanation according to Cushing
Decompressive (decompression, resection) trepanation is a palliative surgery most often performed in cases of inoperable brain tumors to relieve or reduce pain symptoms by decreasing intracranial pressure.
The principle of the operation involves creating a bone defect (5x6 cm) in the area of the cranial vault.
Cranioplasty Trepanation
Methods of cranioplasty trepanation:
Stages of Double-Flap Cranioplasty Trepanation:
• Formation of a skin-aponeurotic flap
• Periosteum preparation
• Drilling of burr holes
• Sawing through the bone bridges between the holes
• Flipping back the bone-periosteal flap, either with or without preserving the nourishing pedicle
• Incising the dura mater
• Manipulations on the brain
• Suturing the dura mater
• Closing the cranial defect